Anatomy+Team+1

**__Systems-__ this is how we sustain life and the body processes **
=** __3 Main Systems__ **=

**a) __Metabolism-__ a reaction with in the body used to sustain life **
==**b) __Catabolism-__ The breaking down of the food at cell level, food is turned into energy **==

**c) __Anabolism-__ products of digestion are used to produce new body material or cells **
=** 60% of the body is made up of fluid.**= = __**Two types of fluid:**__ = ==**a) __Extracellular-__ fluid found outside of the cell, also carries nutrients to the cell. **==

**b) __Intracellular-__ fluid found inside the cell **
=__**Direction of the body**__=

**__distal-__ the furthest point of attachment **
= __**Cavities**__ =

**__Cavity-__ A large internal space containing organs **
==**__dorsal-__ the largest, also known as back cavity and it contains your brain and spinal cord **==

**c) __pelvic-__ contains your bladder, rectum, and reproduction system **
= = = __**Regions**__ =

**__hypogastric-__ below midline **
= **__Cells and Tissues__** =

= **__Parts Of The Cell__** = ==**1) __Cell membrane__ - it encloses and protects the cell. It's very flexible, changes shape made up of protein and fatty substances, allows nutrients in the cell and waste products out of the cell. **== ==**2) __Cytoplasm__ - inside the cell mostly made of water and proteins. It's found between the nucleus and the membrane. **==

==**3) __Mitochondria__ - " __Powerhouse of the Cell__ "to produce energy, converts food to energy. //__If the mitochondria doesn't do its job you DIE !!!!__// **==

[[image:nov11/anatomy notes/Team 1/Mitochondria_Man1.jpg width="400" height="532"]]
==**4) __Nucleus__ - the control center contols what function the cell will carry out. It's responsible for a cells growth, repair, and reproduction **==



**__Mitosis__ - the process in which the cell reproduces and divides. **
= __Methods of Fluids In Cells (Passive Transport Process)__ =



= = ==** 1) __Diffusion__ - constant movement of molecules from a region of a relatively high concentration to a lower concentration until they are equal. **==

==** 2) __Osmosis__ - diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane with the water molecules going from a lesser concentrated solution molecules in the more concentrated solution pulls water molecules from the less concentrated solution. **==

==** 3) __Filtration__ - is the movement of water and solutes through a membrane as a result of pushing force that is greater on one side of the membrane than the other side. The force is called HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE. **==

==** 4) __Active Transport-__ allows cells to take in what it needs from the surrounding fluid. **==


 * [[image:nov11/anatomy notes/Team 1/tumblr_l97dk5twsF1qzj9leo1_500.jpg]] ||
 * WBC EATS BACTERIA ||

= **Tissues** = = =

=** __4 Groups of Tissues__ **= = = = ** a) __Epithelial tissue__ - **cells that form a continuous layer provides covering for the body, forms the outer layer of skin and lines hollow organs. ** ex: uterus and abdomen** = = Tissues are protected by a protein called Keratin. = = **b) __Connective Tissue__ -** fiberous and there are ** __3 types__ ** = ==** 1) __Atapose__ - (fat) loose connective tissue made up of interlacing fibers, supports __nerve cells__ and __blood vessels__ . **== ==** 2) __Dense__ - fiberous closely packed elastic found in __tendons__ and __ligaments__. **== ==** 3) __Supportive__ - loose interlacing tissue that is calcifide with mineral salts found in __bone__ and __cartilage__ . **==

= __**Muscle Tissue-**__ found in bundles of long, slender cells that have the power to contract. = ==** a) __Smooth-__ involuntary, no control of found in __blood vessels__ and __internal organs....__ __Non- Striated__ **== == **b)** __**Skeletal-**__ **voluntary control, __striated__ you have the power to contract ( __elastic__ ) attatched to the __skeletal system__ .** == == **c)** __**Cardiac**__ **-** ** __slightly striated__, involuntary control found in the __heart__ .** == ==**d) __Nerve-__ highly specialized, conveys messages and it's found inside and outside the body. ex: __brain__ and __spinal cord__ **== = = = = =**Skin- referred to the integument, the function is to provide a protective layer over the entire body. It contains __2 major layers:__ **=

==**1) __Epidermis__ - outer most layer of the skin constantly wearing off. Nerve tissue is formed. **==

==** 2) __Dermis-__ contains blood vessels, nerves, sweat and oil glands **==

== __**Keratin-**__ **protein substance found in hair, nails, outer skin cells, and horny tissues.** == ==__ **Melanin-** __ **color pigment of skin.** == == __**Subcutaneous-**__ **under the dermis connects skin to the muscle composed of fat and elastic fiberous tissue helps insulate the body and store energy.** ==

== ** 1) __Sudoriferous__ - (sweat) located in the dermis and subcutaneous layer, regulates body temperture by the production of sweat and in the evaporation of it. ** ==

== ** 2) __Sebaceous-__ oil gland (Sebum) this is secretion that softens and lubricates the hair and skin. If the opening of the sebum has dirt in it, it becomes a blackhead or pimple. ** ==

== ** Hair is made up of protein (Keratin). Hair is never on the bottom of feet or palms. ** == == ** __Nails-__ harder form of keratin considered a form of protected structure. ** == == ** Hair and nails are used as a good diagnostic tool. ex: Drug testing ** ==

== **__Functions of the skin-__ protects deep tissues from dying, invasion of pathogens and toxins prevents waterloss, regulates body temperture, receives impulses from the outside of the body through nerve endings. We can sense heat, pain, and cold. ** == = = = __**Disorders of the Skin**__ = = = =** 1) __Pigment-__ colors caused by melanin. Melanin gives your skin tone and is responsible for a tan or burn. **= =** 2) __Dermatitis-__ inflammation of the skin caused by an irritant. ex: itching or burning **= = = =** 3) __laceration-__ rough jagged roots. **= = = ==** 4) __Ulcers-__ sores associated with disintegration in death of tissue cells also known as decubitus. **==

[[image:nov11/anatomy notes/Team 1/Decubitus_Ulcer_1_110403.jpg width="526" height="227"]]
==** 5) __Eczema-__ (non- contagious disease), redness and blisters also have pimple like lesions, scaling and crusting of the skin. **==

==** 6) __Acne-__ blockage of oil glands, causes pimples. Age for acne is 14-25 yrs old. **==

[[image:nov11/anatomy notes/Team 1/dermnet_duo_acne_whitehead_blackhead.jpg width="413" height="227"]]
==** 7) __Impetigo-__ (contagious) caused by strep of staph lesions that fill with puss which contain bacteria. Found frequently in people who are poor or under nurished. Treatment: antibiotics **==

[[image:nov11/anatomy notes/Team 1/ImpetigoPictures10.jpg]]
==** 8) __Alopecia-__ baldness caused by aging, hereditary, severe infection or chemo. **==

==** 9) __Athletes Foot-__ itchy lesions on the toes and feet caused by a fungus. (Contagious) Treatment is an anti-fungal medicine and to keep feet dry. **==

[[image:nov11/anatomy notes/Team 1/skinboil1.jpg width="240" height="212"]]
==** 11) __Herpes Simplex 1__ __-__ cold sores or blisters on the lips or inside the mouth **==

[[image:nov11/anatomy notes/Team 1/cdc_cold_sore_closeup_lips.jpg width="413" height="227"]]
=__ **Skeletal System** __=

**__Bones-__ framework of the body, bones start as cartilage. **
==**__Osteoblast-__ calcium form and harden bones, bones are living organisms that vary in shape and size. **==

==**Outside the bone is compacted and hard. Center of the bone has blood vessels and nerve endings.**==

=** __2 Types__ **=

==**1) __Red-__ found in the center of the bone, it is found in the long bones and produces red blood cells. **==

**__Periosteum-__ name for the outside of the bone. **
==**__Growth Plate-__ located in long bones, this is where the bone grows. Grows til about the age of 20 years age. **==

=** 206 Bones in the body.**= = **__Axial Bones__** =

**6) __Mandible-__ jaw bone (lower) moveable **
= = = = = __**Vertebrae First 7 are Cervical**__ =

=**__ Appendicular Bones * 126 Bones *__**=

= **__Bone Disorders__** =

==**__Osteoporosis-__ loss of calcium in bones due to poor nutrition, inactivity, and menopause. Bones are brittle and break easily. __ Treatment: __ Exercise or Supplements **==

==**__Osteomyelitis-__ inflammation of bone and bone marrow caused by a pathogen and a break in the skin to the bone. __ Symptoms: __ pain, swelling, edema, and fever. __ Treatment: __ antibiotics or possible amputation **==

==**__Rickets-__ Vitamin D deficiency, the bones don't grow and calcify, easy breakage, the bones bend and you are "bowl legged" **==

==**__Scoliosis-__ curve of the spinal column to the one side. Mostly occurs in women. __Treatment:__ Brace Therapy **==

= **__Fractures__** =

**5) __Comminuted Fracture-__ more than one fracture line, lots of fragments **
==**6) __Spiral Fracture-__ (Twisted) fracture is in a spiral form __ Treatment: __ Immobilize and X-ray **==

= **__Joints__** =

= **__4 Types of Joint Movement__** =

==**__Joint Function-__ allows changes and movement. Allows changes in flexiblity and extension and without them our bodies can't move. **==

= **__Joint Disorders__** =

==**1) __Rheumatoid Arthritis-__ affects synovial space, you may be born with it or it may occur in the early 20's. Treatment: Keep the body warm or Possible Surgery **== ==**2) __Infectious Arthritis-__ caused by pathogens from another disease. Ex: Psorosis or Tuberculosis **== ==**3) __Gout-__ abnormal amount of uric acid. __ No rich or spicy foods. __ Main sites hands and toes. Mainly occurs in males. Very Painful. __ Treatment: __ Medicine **==

**4) __Backache-__ pull or strain by disease **
==**5) __Sprain-__ wrecking of a joint tissue is destroyed and it takes longer to heal than a break. **==

= **__Muscular System__** =

= __**3 Types of Muscle**__ =

==**Functions of the muscular system produces movement for shape and posture and produces heat.**==

==**As we age, we start to lose muscle cells, approximately age 40 they start to decrease and you lose strength, the key to help maintain your muscle is exercise Ex: Aerobics **==

= **__Muscle Disorders__** =

**1) __Atrophy-__ wasting or decrease in the size of muscle **
==**2) __Muscular Dystrophy-__ genetic, degenerative disease of the muscle. It's progressive at weakening muscles. **==

=** __Nervous System__ **= = =

=**__Your nervous system is divided into 3 systems :__**=

==**1) __Central Nervous System-__ (CNS) this includes the brain and spinal cord **== ==**2) __Peripheral System-__ all nerves not included in the Central Nervous System. Controls voluntary movement. **== ==**3) __Autonomic-__ nerves on either side of the spinal cord, leads from and to internal organs and glands, regulates all involuntary actions. **==

**Nerve cells are very delicate, so they are covered by myelin.**
= __**2 Types of Nerve Cells**__ =

**__Brain-__ weighs approximately 3 lbs, composed of soft nerve tissue, it's housed in the bones of the skull, covered by protected membranes called "meninges". **
= __**3 Different Types of Meninges**__ =

**3) __Pia Mater-__ inner layer, this is also known as "Little Mother". **
= __**3 Spaces**__ =

**__CSF-__ (Cerebral Spinal Fluid) it's produced and formed in the ventricles. **
= **Brain** =

**__Cerebrum-__ largest part of the brain, you have a right and left hemisphere, it's responsible for concious thought, judgement, memory, reasoning, and will power. It's divided into 4 parts: **
==**1) __Frontal Lobe-__ located under the forehead, contols all motor functions, the right side contols the left side and the left side contols the right side. Speech is also controlled by the frontal lobe. **==

**__Brain Stem-__ below the cerebellum, upward extension of the spinal cord, controls heart rate, breathing (All Vital Signs) __ involuntary, __ No control over it. **
==**__Spinal Cord-__ approximately 17-18 inches long, extends from the brain stem down, it's covered by myelin, it's embathed in CSF, serves as a reflex center and conduction pathway to and from your brain .**== = **__Disorders of the Brain and Spinal Cord__** = = = = =

==**__Cerebral Vascular Accident-__ referred a (CVA) stroke, blood clot, or hemmorage, be in the cerebral part of the brain and oxygen doesn't get to the brain. Depending on the area on the brain affected you can have loss of speech, paralysis, memory loss. **==

= __**Causes of a Stroke**__ =

**3) Diet**
= = = __**Diseases**__ = = = = = =**__Parkinsons-__ caused by a chemical deficiency in the brain, known as the "Shaky Policy" Symptoms: tremors, unsteady gait (shuffle forward), speech difficulty. Treatment: Medication There is no cure. **=

= __**2 Types of Seizures**__ = = =

**1) __Petit Mal-__ considered mild. __ Symptoms: __ stare, day dreaming, rapid eye movement **
==**2) __Grand Mal-__ before the seizure they might see an aura that will tell them that their going to have a seizure, loss of conciousness. Just protect them, lie them down, the air way might be blocked but the person will breathe, loss of bladder and bowels. when the come to they will be very disoriented and will want to sleep. // Time a seizure. // **==

** __Poliomyelitis__- ** acute viral infection affecting the brain and spinal cord. __Causes paralysis.__ No Cure, but there is a vaccine.
==__Multiple Sclerosis__- (MS) hardening of the myelin caused by a deficiency in myelin or virus. This is a diabling and progressive. Symptoms: blurred vision, slurred speech, and patient will end up in a wheel chair can contol this with attitude, no cure. ==

** __Sciatica-__ severe pain along the sciatic nerve ( buttocks to the back of leg ) caused by a ruptured disc. **
==** __Herpes Zoster__- (shingles) //adult form of chicken pox, this is caused by a virus, sores along the nerve picks a nerve and follows it. Bumps on the skin __very contagious__ and __painful__. Can last 7-10 days. // **== === __**//Autonomic Nervous System- //**__**// regulates the action of the glands, smooth muscle and hollow organs, controls the __sympathetic__ and __parasympathetic__ nervous system. //** ===

=__ ** Spinal Disorders ** __= = =

= __**Sensory System**__ = = = = __**4 Senses**__ = = =

** 4) taste (taste buds)**
** 5) ** *** Pressure ***

===__**Receptor cells-** __**change to stimuli then into electrical signals that go into the brain and convert to sight, smell, and sound.** === ===**__Vision-__ transmits a constant stream of images to the brain by electrical signals, approximately 1" in diameter and protected by a bony orbit and moved by muscle. ** ===

=__** 3 Layers of the Eye ** __=

** 1) __Sclera-__ outermost layer (white of the eye) ** ** 2) __Choroid-__ middle layer composed of connective tissue and blood vessels prevents light rays from scattering. ** ** 3) __Retina__- inner layer contains receptor cells for vision __a Rod__ and a __Cone__. **

** __Rods-__ adapts to allow vision in dim light. ** ** __Cones-__ to function in bright light and sensitive to color.**

__**PARTS OF THE EYE:**__

==
 * 1) __Conjunctive__ **** __Cover -__ L **** ining that covers the front surface of the eye, it has an upper and lower eyelid, they have pain and touch receptors. **

2) __C**ornea -**__ The window of the eye, it is transparent and is considered to be on the outer layer.
=**3) __Iris -__ The colored part of the eye, it is made up of muscles **=

= 4) __Pupil -__ The circular opening in the center of the iris, it dilates and constricts according to the amount of light entering the eye. =

=5) __Aqueous Humor -__ Watery fluid in the space in front of the lens. =

= 6) __Lens -__ Used for focusing, disk shaped, located between the iris and the pupil, it is elastic and held in place by ligaments. =

=**7**)__Vitreous -__ Jelly like substance that fills space behind the lens, keeps the shape of the eyeball. =

= **8) __Optic nerve-__** Carries the image to the brain. We see because the light rays bounce off of the object. It reflects off of the object, travels through the cornea then through the pupil, it is focused by the lens. Then to the retina which sends the image to the optic nerve and finally to the brain. =

=**__ DISORDERS OF THE EYE: __**= = = = = = = =** __Conjunctivitis__ - ( __// PINK EYE) //__ // Inflamation of the membrane that lines the eyelids, it is caused by irritants and pathogens. __IT IS CONTAGIOUS__. Treatment for this is Antibiotics. //**=



=** __Eye Strain__- // Fatigue of the eye and it is caused by overuse in improper conditions of reading. //**= =** __Hyperopia__ - __(__  __Farsightedness)__ - you have trouble seeing something close to you. **= =** __Myopia__- __(__  __Nearsightedness)__ - can't see objects far away. **= =** __Astigmatism-__ blurred vision **= =__** Strabismus- **__ ** eye muscles are not coordinated. Alot of babies have it til age 2. **= = = = = =__ **Blindness-** __ **when the cataract lens becomes opaque and cloudy.** = =**__ Glaucoma- __ excessive pressure on the aqueous humor. The fluid doesn't circulate the way it should. Treatment: Medication or surgery. **= = = = = = = =**__ Diabetes- __ if a teen has this diagnosis they usually become blind in their 20's. **= = = = = =**__ The Ear __**= = = = = = = =** The function hearing and balance. **= = = =**__ 3 Parts __**= = = =** 1) __ External Ear __ (auricle or pinna) - auditory canal and auditory projection **= = = =** a) __Auditory Canal__- this extends from the external ear to the eardrum. This is where you will find __wax glands__ and __tiny hairs__. **= =** b) __Tympanic Membrane__ - ( __eardrum__  ) separates the external ear from the middle ear. It's made up of a thin sheet of tissue, it vibrates freely. You need equal amounts of pressure on both sides of the eardrum. **= =** c) __Eustachian Tube__ - Pressure is maintained by this, connects the middle ear to your throat. **= = = = = =** 2) __Middle Ear__ - small flat spaces that contain __3 small bones__ : **= = = =** a) Malleus- (Hammer) **= =** b) Incus- (Anvil) **= =** c) Stapes- (Stirrup)  **= = = =** __Oval Window__- Membrane that covers the entrance to the inner ear. **= = = =** 3) __Inner Ear__- (Most Important) This is an organ for hearing and balance. Composed of a bony labrynth which contains the vestibule and cochlea, semi- circular canals. **= = = =** a) __Cochlea__- This is a coiled bony tube filled with fluid and lined with receptor cells. Ex: Snail Shell Located in the inner ear. Are also the semi- circular canals. **= = = = **b) __Perrilympathic Space__- Located in the semi-circular canal and cochlea. This is responsible for balance.** = = = = = = = =__**How we hear**__ ** Sound waves travel through the auditory canal, they vibrate the eardrum, then vibrate tiny bones. The vibration crosses through the oval window to the inner ear, passes through the cochlea, at this point the vibrations are converted to electrical signals and converted to the brain. The brain stimulates it and lets you know what you are hearing. **=

=**__Disorders of the Ear__**=

=**1) __Otitismedia-__ Infection of the middle ear caused by bacteria or a virus, usually a complication from another illness. Treatment: Antibiotics**= =2) __**Conduction Deafness**__**- Due to an interference from the outside of the ear to the inner ear. The main cause is a build up of wax, damage to the eardrum, or loud music. **= = = = **3) __Nerve Deafness__-** ** Due to disorders to the __sensory mechanism__. (Nerve endings, brain, nerve) Causes: Certain drugs, infections, and toxins. Can have total deafness with age. The higher the pitch that is the first to go.  **= = = = = = = = = = __**Endocrine System**__ = = = =// Controls and coordinates your body. Also includes hormones. //= = = =// __ Hormone- __ Controls the function of the body. They manufacture proteins and steroids, regulates metabolism, growth, development, and reproduction. //= = = =__// Produces 2 Types of Hormones //__= =// 1) __ Exocrine Gland- __ Secretes the hormones through ducts. Ex: Sweat and Saliva //= =// 2) __ Endocrine Gland- __ This does not have ducts. It pours the hormones through the bloodstream. //= = = =// __ Pituitary Gland- __ Master Gland produces and regulates the endocrine gland. //= = = =// __ Growth Hormone- __ This is an important gland. The pituitary gland secretes (ductless). //= = = =// __ Hypothalmus- __ Is in the brain, regulates body temperature, appetite, thirst, sleep center, sex drive, and menstral cycle. //= = = =// __ Thyroid Gland- __ located anterior (front) of the neck. Secretes 2 types of hormones: //= =// 1) Calcitonin //= =// 2) Thyroxine //= = = = = = = = = =// __ Parathyroid Gland- __ Under the surface of the thyroid this regulates the calcium, magnesium, and phospherus in your blood. //= = = =// __ Adrenal Glands- __ Above the kidneys (2) of them: //= =  = = = = = = = = = =// 1) __ Inner Gland- __ This reacts when the body is subjected to tense emotions. //= =// 2) __ Outer Gland- __ Produces hormones that regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It also regulates minerals and water. //= = = =// __Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans__- Above the pancreas. Produces insulin and regulates blood sugar levels. //= = = =// __ Testes- __ Located in the male and produces testosterone. Also stimulates growth and development of sexual organs and a deep voice. //= = = =// __Ovaries__- Secrete 2 hormones: //= =// 1) __ Estrogen- __ Stimulates the growth of sex organs and our characteristics. //= =// 2) __ Progesterone- __ This stimulates milk production. Prepares the lining of the uterus for fertilized egg and aids in maintaining pregnancy. //= = = = = =__ //Disorders of the Endocrine Glands// __=

= //__ Pituitary Gland- __ (Tumor) Causes gigantism, occurs in a young child, over production of the growth hormone. If this develops later in life it is called, "Acromegaly." Face, feet, hands over develop and become grotesque.// = = = = // __Dwarfism-__ The pituitary gland doesn't produce enough growth hormone.// = = = = //__ Thyroid Disease- __ We get our iodine and salt from the thyroid and if there is a deficiency we develope a Goiter.// = = = = //__ Hypothyroidism- __ Underactive thyroid.// = =__ //2 Types of this Disease:// __= = = = //1) __ Cretinism- __ lack of thyroid activity in the beginning of life.// = = //2) __ Myxedema- __ Causes mental/physical sluggishness, dry skin/hair, sensitive to cold, rapid weight gain, dry/husky voice. Treatment: Doctor gives you lacking hormone.// = = = = //__ Hyperthyroidism- __ (Graves Disease) Nerves, jittering and thirsty. Poor tolerance to heat. Increased metabolism. Exophthalmos- Bulging Eyes Treatment: Doctor gives medication to slow down thyroid or posssible surgery.// = = = = //__ Diabetes Mellitis- __ Pancreas doesn't secrete insulin. Sugar remains in the blood.// = = __//2 Types of Diabetes//__ = = //1) __ Juvenile- __ Develops early in life. Treatment: Change in diet, Oral Medication, or Insulin Shots.// = = //2)__ Senile Dicub- __ (Type B-2) Happens later in life. Treatment: Pills and Insulin Shots.// = = = = __//The 3 P's//__ = = //1) __ Polydyphia- __ Excessive Thirst// = = //2) __ Polyphagia- __ Excessive Appetite// = = //3) __ Polyuria- __ Excessive Urination// = = = = //__ The Urinary System- __ Designed to produce and excrete urine from the body. Maintains homeostasis for healthy survival. __Composed of :__ 2 Kidneys, 2 Ureters, 1 Bladder, 1 Urethra.// = = = =*Fluid intake should equal your fluid output*= = // __Kidneys-__ One on either side of the spinal column. They need to maintain electrolytes, water, and acid based balances. Cleans and filters the blood.// = = = = //__ Nephrons- __ You have more than 1 million microscopic units. Funnel shaped. Function: Produces urin.// = = = = //__ Filtration of the Kidneys- __ Blood goes in through the nephrons. Have the beginning of urine formation. Urine passes through the Bowman's Capsule, then continues to the glomeruli (causes high pressure filtration)// = = = =** __ //Ureters-// __Where urine drains out of the kidneys and into the bladder. **= = = =** __ Bladder- __ Consists of elastic fibers and involuntary muscle fibers to help with bladder extension. Acts as a resevoir. **= = = =** __ Urethra- __ Urine passes from the bladder down the urethra and out as its external opening. In women, the urethra is approximately 4" long. In men, the urethra is approximately 6" long. **= = = =** __ Micturition- __ urination, voiding (pee) **= = = = **__Disorders__** = = = =** __ Incontinence- __ Loss of bladder control. **= = = =** __ Dysuria- __ Painful and burning sensation when you urinate. **= = = =** __ Hydronephrosis- __ Swelling/enlargement of the renal pelvis caused by a blockage of urine outflow. **= = = =** __ Kidney Stones- __ (Renal Calculi) Crystalized mineral chuncks that develop in the renal pelvis. __ Possible causes: __ Too much calcium, salt, magnesium, phosphates, callate, and citrate. **= == =** __ Hematuria- __ Traces of blood in the urine. **= = = =** __ Cystitis- __ inflammation of the bladder, may be causes by an infection, tumor, or calculi. **= = = =** __ Cytospasm- __ When there is a great need to urinate, you hold it in for a long period of time, then you can't urinate because your bladder is in spasm. **= = = =** __ Dialysis- __ This takes blood from the body to a machine, filters waste products, and returns the clean blood back into the body. **= = = = = = =